AGCI Session I: Natural Hazards and Global Change
Session Chairs: Louis Walter and E. L. Quarantelli
- July 10 to 20, 1996
III. Elements of Natural Disaster Reduction
Humanity lives with nature. Seldom able to control it, we must learn to adapt to nature's variability. As increasing population and population density stretch nature's resources to their limits, and as the systems we rely upon become more elaborate and interdependent, humanity becomes increasingly vulnerable to extreme and sudden changes. The attempt to control this vulnerability and our reaction to the failure to control it are embodied in an activity which may be termed "disaster management." This complex enterprise comprises many different functions, organizations and disciplines.
Mitigation is
defined as "any sustained action taken to reduce or eliminate
long-term risk to human life and property." Mitigation is the
backbone of disaster management.
Disaster Management Functions
Mitigation is defined as "any sustained action taken to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to human life and property." Mitigation is the backbone of disaster management for it comprises the mechanisms by which societies can avoid the effects of potential disasters. These actions can focus on averting disasters, particularly by avoiding the placement of people and structures in hazardous areas. They may also be attempts to control hazards through various specialized constructions and construction practices. Both of these types of mitigation measures require knowledge of the hazard risk the probability of occurrence of a hazard. For example, Figures 1.3 a, Figure 1.3 b, and Figure 1.3 c map the risks of floods, earthquakes and storm surges in the United States. Knowledge of the vulnerability of existing or planned structures and habitats is also needed in order to adequately mitigate disasters.
Mitigation
measures require knowledge of the hazard risk the probability of
occurrence of a hazard.
It is, of course, unlikely (or, in the extreme, uneconomical) to protect society from all hazards, so it must be prepared for nature's extreme events. Preparedness includes actions which warn of impending disasters, as well as measures such as stockpiling supplies or designating emergency evacuation routes, by which the disastrous effects can be lessened or even avoided.
Disaster relief is the most obvious and dramatic component of disaster management but it can also be considered to represent the failure of mitigation and preparedness. For many, it is considered the only element of disaster management. This has led to a focus on relief efforts and the expenditure of vast resources in ameliorating the effects of disasters, thus drawing attention and funding away from mitigation. While relief is certainly a necessary and profoundly humanitarian activity, there is general agreement among practitioners that truly effective disaster management lies in the development and implementation of mitigation measures.
After the occurrence of a disaster, and the delivery of immediate relief, there will generally be a period of recovery including reconstruction of destroyed or damaged structures. Properly implemented, this will include assessment of the causes of the disaster and, in that light, design and implementation of remedial (mitigation) measures so that future occurrences can be avoided, or at least, the effects minimized.
Preparedness
includes actions which warn of impending disasters, as well as
measures such as stockpiling supplies or designating emergency
evacuation routes, by which the disastrous effects can be lessened or
even avoided.
The organizations concerned with disaster management are as varied and numerous as the aspects and scale of the subject. They include government agencies, voluntary and academic organizations, business enterprises, and other private sector organizations.
Within the federal government, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has the major responsibility for disaster management. For federally-declared emergencies, it is mandated to draw upon the capabilities of other federal agencies. FEMA has recently focused attention on crafting its National Mitigation Strategy and is now beginning to implement this strategy. Other federal agencies provide operational capabilities in areas such as weather (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA) and geological (U. S. Geological Survey, USGS) hazards and safe building construction (National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST) as well as in research (National Science Foundation, NSF and National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA). NASA, NOAA and other federal agencies are also involved in longer term climate forecasting, including snow cover and snow melt forecasts, seasonal drought forecasts and the tracking of such phenomena as El Niño/Southern Oscillation. The Department of Defense, especially through the Army Corps of Engineers and the National Guard, is often involved in disaster response.
Disaster relief
is the most obvious and dramatic component of disaster management but
it can also be considered to represent the failure of mitigation and
preparedness.
FEMA photo.
Most states have disaster response or emergency services organizations which have widely different capabilities, organizational positions, and responsibilities. It is at the local governmental level, however, that major disaster management responsibility lies, particularly for mitigation. Of course, the first line of defense for relief lies with the local fire, police and emergency management officials but, for major disasters, this is augmented by personnel and equipment from other echelons. In general, land use and zoning is a prerogative which is strongly guarded by local governments which do not have the resources to generate state-of-the-art risk and vulnerability maps. They must consequently look to state and federal governments for this information which is not always provided at a scale commensurate with the needs of local communities.
Academic institutions play an important role in education, training and research and there are several academic centers and institutes that focus on hazards and disaster studies. Industry plays several direct roles in disaster management. The insurance and banking industries form a key component in disaster mitigation since they cover much of the financial burden of disasters. Further, corporations both large and small have begun to recognize that it is to their advantage to mitigate disastrous effects on their business and employees. Finally, there is a significant enterprise of concerns associated with supplying goods and services for disaster management activities.
It is at the
local governmental level that major disaster management
responsibility lies, particularly for mitigation.
The variety of occupations and disciplines engaged in disaster management is as broad as the variety of functions served by disaster management. It is not necessary here to describe this in detail but an outline is useful to place into context the discussions and recommendations which follow and in order to understand why questions of disaster management can and must be considered from several perspectives.
Disaster management practitioners can be defined as personnel whose main occupation lies with the implementation of disaster management functions. Thus, the first line of defense during a disaster generally lies with emergency response personnel: fire and rescue, police and medical units and, for larger-scale emergencies, with military units of the state and federal governments. For disaster preparedness and mitigation, immediate responsibility lies with planning officials at various government levels. The work of these practitioners is supported by the efforts of various academic disciplines, businesses, engineering, and the physical and social sciences.
The communal response to an existing or potential disaster has, for some time, interested social scientists who have explored the behavior of groups confronted by natural hazards. Sociologists have studied the nature of disaster preparedness and response. Land-use planners, geographers, political scientists and economists consider land use patterns, and political and economic aspects of hazards. On the other hand, physical scientists focus on the hazards in attempts to understand and predict them or at least to identify geographically vulnerable areas. Among the things engineering researchers are concerned with is the performance of buildings and other structures in the face of natural disasters.
Disasters are a
collision of social and physical systems. Improved disaster
management requires both improved understanding of the physical
system and improved capability of dealing with the social system.
Sandbagging during 1993 Midwest floods. FEMA photo by Andrea Booker.
Sandbagging during 1993 Midwest floods. FEMA photo by Andrea Booker.
Unfortunately, social and physical scientists rarely have the opportunity, or have taken the opportunity to work together toward improved disaster management. By their very nature, disasters are a collision of social and physical systems. Improved disaster management requires both improved understanding of the physical system and improved capability of dealing with the social system. This is the fundamental theme of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.
A society which
has worked to become sustainable and resilient to natural disasters
will also likely be resilient to global change in its many forms.
An opportunity also exists to bring together the goal of community resilience to natural disasters and the goal of worldwide resilience to global change, both gradual and rapid. The goal of sustainability is also concordant with these goals. In short, a society which has worked to become sustainable and resilient to natural disasters will also likely be resilient to global change in its many forms.
See Side Bar: Oscar Huh: On natural disasters and coastal communities
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