1.1

Fundamental Cause

Examples

Spatial variability + process nonlinearity

Surface hydrology, formation of clouds and precipitation, photosynthetic response to higher atmospheric CO₂

Minimum spatial scale required for certain process

Runoff generation

Different processes dominate at different scales

Terrestrial and marine ecology

Feedbacks between scales

Transpiration response to higher CO₂, Economic costs of greenhouse gas emission abatement

Development of emergent properties

Sea ice

Edge effects

Sea ice, terrestrial ecology

Temporal lag dependent on spatial scale

Response of ecosystem species composition to climatic change

Collective response with differential effects

Ecosystem response to higher CO₂, Societal valuation of impacts

Table 1.1

A classification of upscaling problems based on the underlying fundamental cause.

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Fundamental Cause	Examples
Spatial variability + process nonlinearity	Surface hydrology, formation of clouds and precipitation, photosynthetic response to higher atmospheric CO₂
Minimum spatial scale required for certain process	Runoff generation
Different processes dominate at different scales	Terrestrial and marine ecology
Feedbacks between scales	Transpiration response to higher CO₂, Economic costs of greenhouse gas emission abatement
Development of emergent properties	Sea ice
Edge effects	Sea ice, terrestrial ecology
Temporal lag dependent on spatial scale	Response of ecosystem species composition to climatic change
Collective response with differential effects	Ecosystem response to higher CO₂, Societal valuation of impacts